Islamic Architecture

Structuralisms Architecture Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Islamic culture. What is Islam? * The name of the religion is Islam, which comes from an Arabic root word meaning â€Å"peace† and â€Å"submission. † * Islam teaches that one can only find peace in one's life by submitting to Almighty God (Allah) in heart, soul and deed. * The same Arabic root word gives us â€Å"Salaam Alaskan,† (â€Å"Peace be with you†), the universal Muslim reediting.Geographical * The Moslem faith flourished in the countries of Southern Asia and North Africa. * Other important communities include Zanzibar, Madagascar and China. * In the 20th century mobility, Islam was brought throughout the world as far as Sydney and South shields. * The spread of Islam has been frequently associated with military conquest , racial movements and in some cases with the consequent displacement of established populations. * The most important were the Arab expansion northwards and westwards out of the Arabian peninsula, and the drive of the Turkish ND Mongol groups South, Southeast and Southwest of Central Asia.The Islamic world Geological * The countries into which Islam first expanded were already rich in building tradition and the important techniques of exploitation of natural resources for building work and trade in building materials had long been established. * Brick making and pipes' walling was almost universal in the alluvial plains * Cooling effect of structures with very heavy walls and high rooms has been widely exploited. * Unprotected circulation are common. History * A. D. 622 – the year of the Hegira, when Mohammed moved from Mecca to Medina.Immediately after his death in 632 – the concerted efforts of the Arabian Tibet carried death as conquerors into Central Asia and west ward towards the Atlantic. Social * The Arab group which were the spearhead of advanced Islam ,were essentially tribal, and in consequence the behavior patterns and attributes of emergent Islamic societies were based on traditions of the desert. * Public life was reserved for men. * Women play a secondary role, to be part of the household – the harem. In public, she is protected by the anonymity of the veil. * Equality was only granted to theAromatic groups. * â€Å"peoples of the book† -Jews and Christians * Freedom of worship and interval government. Religious * Islam is the last of the three great religions of the middle east. * Its essence is contained in a simple sentence, which is both the profession of faith and the credo of its adherents * There is only one God and his prophet Mohammed. * Philosophy of life and government. * The Koran – is regarded as the revelation through the medium of the prophet Mohammed. * The Width – is the collection of his sayings or injunctions and is of lesser weight.The law – is extracted from the prophet's instructions, from tradition and sample. * An acceptance of the transitory nature of earthly life; personal humility; an abhorrence of images worship. * The important architectural endeavor is normally expended on buildings having a direct social or community purpose, including worships; that decorations tends toward the abstract, using geometric, calligraphic and plant motifs , with a preference for a uniform field of decoration rather than a focal element; and that a basic conservatism discouraged innovations and favored established formsTerminologies * Massed (Persia, India) – mosque or a place of worship. * Jam – mosque, principal place of worship, or use of the building for Friday prayers * Messed (Turkey) – small * Salami – men's or prayer house * Madras (Egypt) * Menders (Turkey) – religious college and mosque. * Sara; Sera – palace Buildi ng Components * Miramar – niche oriented towards Mecca * Member – raised platform for ceremonial announcements open-fronted vault facing on to a court * ABA – gateway * Sans – courtyard of a mosque * Minaret – tower from which call to prayer was made.Harem – women's or private quarter's of a house or palace quest's quarters * Kibble; Kibble – axis oriented towards Mecca * Chatter (India) – kiosk Personnel * Muezzin – caller who summons the faithful to prayer * Imam – man who leads the congregation at prayer * ‘wan; Ivan (Persia) – * Caliph – successor to the prophet as military, Judicial and spiritual leader of Islam Architectural Character * Majority of Islamic buildings are fundamentally related to a principal axis. This axis is frequently extended into a formal landscape which is integral part of the sign. The prime axis was the kibble, the general concept was derived from the line of balanc e and symmetry implicit in the concept of perfect creation, as seen in gardens and buildings. * Islamic architecture is centered upon God. At its heart is the Mosque and inward – looking building whose prime purpose is contemplation and prayer. * Mosque may serve as a school, transactions may be made there and storage for treasures. * Minaret – a tower from whose top the Muezzin gave the call to prayer. * Miramar – a niche where the leader of the congregation (the Imam) sakes his prayers. Menders/Madras – college * Han/Caravanserai's – the hostel * The courtyard – the sides were punctuated with gateways, prayer chambers, or arched porches ‘wants. Architecture Forms and Styles of Mosques and buildings in Muslim countries Forms – Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a covered prayer hall. Sheehan â⠂¬â€œ The traditional Islamic courtyard, a Sheehan in Arabic, is found in secular and religious structures.When within a accidence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled garden. A Sheehan – courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Arabesque – An element of Islamic art usually found decorating the walls and window screens of mosques and Muslim homes and buildings, the arabesque is an elaborate application of repeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants, shapes and sometimes animals (specifically birds).Calligraphy – is associated with geometric Islamic art (the Arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work. Examples Mosque à ¢â‚¬â€œ A Muslim house of worship Minaret – A tall tower in, or continuous to a mosque arch stairs leading up to one or more balconies from which the faithful are called to prayer. Kiosk – a small pavilion, usually open, built in gardens and parks Pointed arch – a two- and four- centered and generally constructed a true arch, Hough corbelled examples were common in India.

Theory of Evolution – Short Essay

How is the theory of evolution used to explain the tremendous diversity of life on Earth? Describe how variation within a population arises and how natural selection differs from artificial selection. Finally, describe how bacteria that become resistant to modern antibiotics Is a clear example of evolution In action. The theory of evolution Is used to explain the extensive diversity of life on Earth by looking at why creatures evolve. The main reason they are able to evolve is that they have a quality that helps them survive in their environment.If two identical animals re put in very different habitats the future generations will end up with very different characteristics. For example, if a bird of multilayered origin is put in the jungle it could be said that eventually they will evolve to be a species of green birds because they have the best camouflage against predators. Natural selection Is most easily described by how a species survives because of traits dictated by their surro undings. An example of this Is an animal of prey that can run faster than Its heard, will escape a predator and live to breed In the future.The offspring will have the genes of a fast parent and likely be fast themselves therefore able to outrun the predator as well. Artificial selection is when humans interfere and only allow certain characteristics to be passed onto the next generation. An example of this is a dog breeder only breeding the dogs with the shiniest coats. The next generation will be heavily influenced to have shiny coats, an example of what they deem a valued characteristic. A very interesting way to see evolution is how bacteria are evolving to become resistant to modern antibiotics.Once thought to be the cure to many dangerous actuarial Infections antibiotics started to be handed out to Ill patients. Unfortunately, some patients are not finishing their prescribed antibiotics leaving bacteria alive In their bodies that are resistant to the drug. These mutant bacteri a quickly reproduce making future generations that are immune to the antibiotics. I can utilize my knowledge of the dangers of antibiotics in my career as a nurse when I work with the elderly in a hospital. I observe that an older patient has abdominal cramping and diarrhea I will assess whether they have recently taken antibiotics because of the risk of C. Official. Being aware of this infection I can collect a stool test to diagnose it. Once diagnosed, I can instruct the patient to stop taking the antibiotic. Then I will counsel them about how C. Difficult Is related to antibiotics. To begin, when the patient takes the drug to treat an Illness It will kill off not only the bacteria making the person sick but the good bacteria found In our Intestines as well. When this Is mammals the dangerous C. Delicate can grow out of control producing toxins that attack the intestine. It is also possible that C. Difficult is becoming crucial it is to finish any prescribed medication.

Comparison of Martin Luther King Jr and Malcom X Essay

They were black men who had a dream, but never lived to see it fulfilled. One was a man who spoke out to all humanity, but the world was not yet ready for his peaceful words. â€Å"I have a dream, a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed†¦ that all men are created equal. † (Martin Luther King) The other, a man who spoke of a violent revolution, which would bring about radical change for the black race. â€Å"Anything you can think of that you want to change right now, the only way you can do it is with a ballot or a bullet. And if you’re not ready to get involved with either one of those, you are satisfied with the status quo. That means we’ll have to change you. † (Malcom X) While Martin Luther King promoted non-violence, civil rights, and the end to racial segregation, a man of the name of Malcom X dreamed of a separate nation. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the conscience of his generation. A Southerner, a black man, he gazed upon the great wall of segregation and saw that the power of love could bring it down. From the pain and exhaustion of his fight to free all people from the bondage of separation and injustice, he wrung his eloquent statement of what America could be. (Ansboro, pg. 1) An American clergyman and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, he was one of the principle leaders of the American Civil Rights Movement and a prominent advocate of nonviolent protest. King’s challenges to segregation and racial discrimination in the 1950’s and 1960’s, helped convince many white Americans to support the cause of civil rights in the United States. After his assassination in 1968, King became the symbol of protest in the struggle for racial justice. (â€Å"King, Martin Luther, Jr. ,† pg. 1) In 1964, Malcom X founded an organization called â€Å"The Muslim Mosque, Inc. In an interview conducted by A. B. Spellman on March 19, 1964, Malcom speaks of his goals for this organization. â€Å"The Muslim Mosque, Inc. will have as its religious base the religion of Islam, which will be designed to propagate the moral reformations necesary to up the level of the so-called Negro community by eliminating the vices and other evils that destroy the moral fiber of the community. But the political philosophy of the Muslim Mosque will be black nationalism, as well as the social and economic philosophies. We still believe in the Honorable Elijah Muhammand’s solution as complete separation. The 22 million so-called Negroes should be separated completely from America and should be permitted to go back home to our native African homeland. † (Breitmaned, pgs. 5-6) Perhaps the key to these two African-Americans leaders opposing goals lay within their very different pasts. Malcom X was born in Omaha as Malcom Little. Malcom’s faith, a Baptist minister was an outspoken follower of Marcus Garvey, the black nationalist leader of the 1920’s. The family moved to Lansing, Michigan, and when Malcom was six years old, his father was murdered after receiving threats from the Ku Klux Klan. Malcom’s mother suffered a nervous breakdown and her eight children were taken by the welfare department. Malcom was sent first to a foster home and then to a reform school. After 8th grade, Malcom moved to Boston where he worked various jobs and eventually became involved in criminal activity. (Malcom X, pg. 1) In 1946, he was sentenced to prison for burglary. While in prison, Malcom became invested in the teachings of Elijah Muhammed, the leader of the black Muslims also called the Nation of Islam. Malcom spent his time in jail educating himself and learning more about the black Muslims, who advocated racial separation. When Malcom was released in 1952, he joined a black Muslim temple in Detroit and became the most prominent spokesperson for the Nation of Islam by the early 1960’s. It was then that he took the name of Malcom X. (â€Å"Malcom,† pg. 1) Martin Luther King was born in Alanta, Georgia, the eldest son of Martin Luther King, Sr. a Baptist minister, and Alberta Williams King. King attended local segregated public schools, where he excelled. He entered nearby Morehouse College at age 15 and graduated with a bachelors degree in sociology in 1948. After graduating with honors from Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania in 1951, he went to Boston University where he earned a doctoral degree in systematic theology i n 1955. (â€Å"King, Martin Luther, Jr. ,† pg. 1) Throughout King’s education, he was exposed to influences that related Christian theology to the struggles of oppressed peoples. At Morehouse, Crozer, and Boston University, he studied the teachings on nonviolent Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi. King also read and heard the sermons of white Protestant ministers who preached against American racism. He was married in 1953, and in 1954, he accepted his first pastorate at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, a church of well-educated congretions that had recently by a minister who had protested against segregation. (â€Å"King, Martin Luther, Jr. ,† pg. 1) Where as King was full of love, peace, respect, and compassion for his fellow white brother, Malcom X was full of hate, anger, and vengeance. He was a dark presence, an angry, cynical, implacable man whose good will or forgiveness or even pity the white race could neither earn nor buy. â€Å"Coffee,† he once remarked in an interview, â€Å"is the only thing I like integrated. † He also pleasantly mentioned that whites were inherently enemies of the Negroes and that integration was impossible without great bloodletting. Nonviolence was as he put it, â€Å"a mealy-mouth, beg-in, wait-in, plead-in kind of action,† and it was only a device for disarming the blacks. He also believed that everything we had heard to the contrary from the Martin Luther Kings and the Roy Wilkinses and the Whiteny Youngs was a deadly dangerous pack of lies. â€Å"That’s etiquette,† he said. â€Å"Etiquette means to blend in with society. They are being polite. The average Negro doesn’t even let another Negro know what he thinks, he’s so mistrusting. I’m black first- my whole objectives are black, my allegiance is black, my whole objectives are black. By me being a Muslim, I’m not interested in American, because America has never been interested in me. † (Goldman, pg. 5) Black blood, claimed Malcom X, is stronger than white. â€Å"A person can have a teaspoon of black in him, and that makes him black. Black can’t come from white, but white can come from black. That means black was first. If black is first, black is supreme and white is dependent on black. † He meant to haunt whites, to play on their fears and quicken their guilt and deflate their dreams that everything was getting better- and he did. â€Å"America’s problem is us. † Malcom X told whites that if they argued that the sins of the past ought not to visited on them, he would reply: â€Å"Your father isn’t here to pay his debts. My father isn’t here to collect, but I’m here to collect, and you’re here to pay. † (Goldman, pgs. 6-9) Martin Luther King is known for his key role as president of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), the oganixation that directed the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. Montgomery’s black community had long standing grievances about the mistreatment of blacks on the city’s buses. Many white bus drivers treated blacks rudely, often cursing them and humiliating them by enforcing the city’s segregation laws, which forced black riders to sit in the back of busses and give up their seats to white passengers on crowded busses. By the 1950’s, Montgomery’s blacks discussed boycotting the busses in an effort to gain better treatment- but not necessarily to end segregation. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a leading member of the local branch of the NAACP, was ordered to give up her seat to a white passenger. When she refused, she was arrested and taken to jail. Local leaders of the NAACP, especially Edgar D. Nixon, recognized recently arrived King’s public speaking gifts as great assets in the battle for black civil rights in Montgomery. King was soon chosen as president of the MIA, the organization that directed the bus boycott.

Trademark logos Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Trademark logos - Essay Example While considering the importance of logos and trademarks, the most important factor is that serves in distinguishing the product or service from that of the counterparts. Thus it becomes important that the trademarks are not generic and it does not refer to a geographic origin. However the protection rules for trademarks and logos do not cover such generic symbols and names. Another major importance of these marketing symbols is that they indirectly lead the customer towards the qualities of the product including its uniqueness and quality. In this context the logos and the trade marks add to the reach and extension of the particular product or service. However under the rules and regulations pertaining to trademarks and logos, it must be ensured that these do not deceive the customer and convey wrong message about the product. As described in the definition of World Intellectual Property Organization itself, logos and trademarks helps to identify the product or service of a particular enterprise globally from other products and services. This distinction and identity is quite important in the modern business scenario. This must be read together with the fact that in the liberalised international economy of the day, the chances of competition and deliverance area overlap is quite possible. To explain this concept, the wide acceptance of ‘ipod’ the music player produced and marketed by Apple would be an ideal example. The trade name ‘ipod’ has had such a market identify that the products which came into market with similar applications were also called by the customers as ‘ipod’. (Rao, A Sreenivasa, 2008).This identity would automatically build in a feeling of confidence among the buyers. Conveyance of Business Objective is another core significance of trademark logos in the modern corporate culture. Trade mark logos can play integral role in the extension of the business

The Cost of Benefiting From Corporate Social Responsibility Essay

The Cost of Benefiting From Corporate Social Responsibility - Essay Example Because the field is a relatively new effort by business and the effects of their actions are so far reaching, it is necessary to quantify what benefits a company derives from CSR as well as demonstrate to the public the benefit that society gains from it. The cost of CSR, sometimes met with a negative response, needs to be examined with an understanding that the benefits in some cases may be mutual and what may be good for society may also be good for business. Measuring the benefit that CSR has to a company has been complicated by the reluctance of business to embrace the concept and provide reasonable reports and audits. A forthcoming report from St. Andrews University contends that less than 4% of the world's major corporations produce CSR reports, and the results have been characterised by Rob Gray, professor from St. Andrews, as, "at best useless and at worst highly misleading" (qtd. in Edwards, 2006). There are, however, some economic indicators that can be used when comparing companies that have a strong CSR reputation to those that do not. Profits, revenues, customer loyalty, market response, worker safety, and legal liabilities can be examined for the impact they have on a business. Societal benefits that arise from worker and product safety, a clean environment, and ethical practices are readily apparent. However, more intangible benefits may not be as readily quantified, but may be reflected in better company reputation, brand l oyalty, and public perception. When measuring CSR as an overall effect on a company, there is some correlation between good company citizenship and lower profitability. Indicators that can be measured indicate an overall negative effect on top CSR companies and their annual net income growth (Laffer, Coors, & Winegarden, 2004, pg. 5). It may be misleading to infer that market leaders also have the most ambitious CSR programs, for as Laffer, Coors, and Winegarden, 2004, conclude, "It is likely, therefore, that the businesses that are inclined to engage in CSR initiatives tend to be those that are already financially successful and that can afford the added CSR overhead" (pg. 6). Short-term benefits from CSR that are realised by society may take place at the expense of a company's core mission of generating profits. However, when CSR traits are examined on an individual basis, the results may reveal benefits for both the company and society. Worker safety is a paramount consideration for a company with strong CSR traits. The demand of a safe workplace is a mainstay of worker advocates and has, in many cases, been forced upon business through increased regulation. Workers have benefited greatly from these actions as the work environment continues to improve. But has business also reaped rewards from investments in safety Or has safety had a negative effect on profit Alcoa, the world's largest aluminium producer, made a strong commitment to safety in 1987. Since then its accident rate has fallen by 90% and is 10 times better than its industry peers (Jackson & Nelson, 2004). During this same period, Alcoa has been able to outpace the industry and its nearest competitor, Alcan, in both revenue and profitability. Safety contributes to profitability through a

Business management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business management - Essay Example The book gives clear reflections encouraging the application of personal experience and critical thinking on these aspects of management. This paper is a report on some key aspects on this book. Very fundamental to this report are the aspects of individual differences and diversity and control and power within an organization. The book covers these aspects very comprehensively and in a clear way. 1.1. Aims and Objectives The aim of this report is to appreciate the presentation of individual differences and diversity in an organization and appreciate the aspects of control and power while ensuring that they are used effectively towards the realization of an organization’s goals. 2. Individual differences and Diversity This report appreciates the individual differences that exist in organizations. The differences exhibited by Different people in organization explain the differences of people’s behaviour in any organizational set up. This diversity is very critical to the understanding of employees in an organization. The fact that an organization is composed of different stakeholders of different cultural backgrounds, ethnicity, and religious affiliations should be understood from the onset so that they can be understood. This should be besides the personality differences. These differences best explain why different people respond to different circumstances differently. Mullins explains these fundamental differences comprehensively thereby assisting the managers and other stakeholders in an organization understand their employees including the government (2011). The understanding of the individual differences is the first step to ensuring peaceful coexistence and harmonious social relations among people of all walks of life brought together. People in an organization need to have a healthy and friendly environment that favours both work and social interaction. This cannot be realized in an environment where the individual divergences and diversity are not understood let alone appreciated. This understanding also minimises the conflicts that are likely to arise due to the diversity of cultures and other personality related differences. It should be understood very clearly that everyone in an organization has attributes unique to only him/her. It is these attributes that influence the behaviours of different people in the organization. The book provides a deep insight in to these differences and is a great tool not only for learning, but also the application by many organizations in order to develop the skills, talents and capacities of employees (Mullins, 2010). The diversity and differences between the different members of an organization also lends credence to the fact that every can best specialize in a given field. It is, therefore, important, upon this understanding that each individual be allowed to pursue his talents, abilities and skills to enhance his individual potential while at the same time contributing to the dev elopment of the organization. It is important to note that the employees are very important assets in any organization. As a system, they form a significant part of the organization without which the organization cannot perform. Therefore, understanding them and their differences lead to the appreciation of who they are and what they can add to the realization of the aims of the organization. An organization that does not understand its employees is one

Role and Functions of Law Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Role and Functions of Law Paper - Essay Example Secondly, the authority of the arms of government is enhanced thus encouraging personal freedom. Thirdly, laws help to attain the set standards and accomplish the expectations of a society. Fourth, laws enhance economic growth by ensuring a free and fair business competition. Laws promote social justice by offering ways and means of resolving conflicts. In the absence of the legislation and courts to govern the behavior of people, the result would be a chaotic society and therefore lead to a decline in business services rendered in a society (Bushman, 2007). The Federal court structure and the Michigan state court have similarities in the fact that the due process is the same whereby the court informs the defendant of his rights and allows them to access to a lawyer. In addition, the court proceedings, the sentencing, and the appealing process are similar where the defendant will listen to the sentence and have a chance to address the court. However, there are some differences in the sense that the federal courts have a limited jurisdiction while the Michigan state court has a general jurisdiction. Limited jurisdiction means that the court van only hear certain cases while in general jurisdiction a judge can listen to all cases ranging from violation of law to family disputes. Judicial review is a type of court proceeding whereby a judge reviews the decision or actions made by the government or by a public body to ascertain whether they are in line with the rules and regulations prescribed by the constitution (Joshua, 2014). The constitution acts as the supreme law of the land since it defines government functions and fundamental human rights. Therefore, the Supreme Court bears the mandate of reviewing all laws that conflict the constitution. In the absence of the judicial reviews of the decisions and actions of the government and public bodies, the

Overview of Sex Offender Registration - Effective or Not Research Paper

Overview of Sex Offender Registration - Effective or Not - Research Paper Example Police investigation revealed that the convicted person was a sex offender and was a nearby neighbor of Megan (Douglas, Burgess, Burgess & Ressler, 2006). Nevertheless, the parents of Megan had no information about the fact that their neighbor is a sex offender and how dangerous he can be to their family. This heated a great debate and eventually Megan’s law came onto the scene, which required States to put this information of sex offenders available to public so that people can ensure their safety (Tilley, 2009). Despite the fact that these registration polices vary amongst different states, however, the primary goal remains the same, avoidance of sexual violence or crime and prevention of sexual re-offending by these former offenders (Wright, 2009). This paper would try to compare to Sex Offender Registration policies in California and Massachusetts. California had implemented these policies in 1947 and Massachusetts was the last state to implement these policies in the last years of 1990s (Douglas et al., 2006). Moreover, in the light of the policies at these two states, many others elements concerning the effectiveness of this system would also come under discussion. Sex Offender Registration laws require offender to register with the local state authority and supply crucial information like name, address, employment details, and others. In most cases, the offender has to register right after his or her release from the prison or in the initial of days of community supervision (Holmes & Holmes, 2008). Since 1996, most of the states have put this information online for public viewing including California and Massachusetts (Brown, 2005). As mentioned earlier, all the states have laws regarding sex offender registration that vary greatly. Differences start arising from the information required for registration. Both these states ask for name, aliases, photo, fingerprints, description of offences, location of offences,

Online Shops And Traffic Flow Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Online Shops And Traffic Flow - Essay Example The online shopping technology requires a deeply integrated shop that can be recognized and stand out from the thousands of shops available online. The proposed Dreamdecor .com online shop specializing in unique home decors would be designed in an attractive way that would draw as much traffic to the shops as possible. DQ1 Following a company online is informative and exciting. One advantage of following a company is that one has a better to learn about the most current and newly launched products even before such products get to the market. Following a company makes one to lead in customer forums and be well informed with latest news on any product, or the performance of the company in the market. Lieb (2009) explains that companies are extensively investing in strategies s that would lead as much customers to their shop. This implies that by following a company as they do marketing, one stands to benefit immensely from a company by either having latest news in predicting their stoc ks and products dynamics. Following a company is essential in taking advantage of discounts and sales that in most cases last for a short time, mostly 24 hours only. In order to attract customers, companies come up with daily sales to reward regular customers where huge discounts on coupons or products are given. For customers unaware of such discounts, they do not take advantage of such discounts and saving incentives; they have to buy at the market prices. By following a company, one gets firsts hand information on discounts and sales incentives from the company and makes a rush to take advantage of such discounts. Increasing the number of fans is the ultimate goal of any business. For example, Purehomedecor.com a similar company has managed to increase visits to their online shop due to their strategic marketing approaches that have resulted in increased traffic, which translates to profit for the company. One way to increase followers and visits for Dreamdecor.com would be to in crease the shop’s online visibility through search engines. While searching for any product, people will most likely make a first stop in search engines such as Google, where they look for their dream products. There will be need to use Google tools such as Google’s Webmaster tools and Google analysis in monitoring the search visibility of the company in search engines. Google analytic tools help in assessing the search dynamics and the keyword to search term relationships (Brightpearl, 2011). Blogs are an alternative way to increase traffic to the shop. Creating active blogs with professional content in home decor will attract more interested parties. Blogs are designed with follow links that lead the customers to the main shop once clicked. The large number of people visiting blogs currently would be ideal for tapping and increasing traffic on the online shop. Ina addition to creating such blogs, there are a number of leading blogs that allow contribution of articles on every subject including home decor. Such blogs allow follow links to be integrated in the leading to different companies to give customers a variety of choices on home decor and other products. Linking to such blogs would increase traffic; more people will be led to the shop through such links. Having social network links would also be ideal in increasing the traffic to our online shop. Pozin (2009) noted that social networks promise a versatile and limitless potential market. Integrating and advertising the business in social networks such as Facebook or twitter will expose the shop to an infinite number of followers since millions of people use

People Who Need People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

People Who Need People - Essay Example A comprehensive social contract theory would depend upon the ideas of Stuart Mill, Thomas Locke, and John Rawis. John Stuart Mill’s ideas would be helpful in developing a perfect relationship between the individual and the state. The state, as an entity of authority, should work towards satisfying the individual’s interests. The state, therefore, should ensure that the individual attains the maximum satisfaction possible while also minimizing pain an individual faces. For instance, in terms of food, the state should ensure that a citizen becomes satiated. Similarly, the state should minimize hunger in the individual. The state, however, only performs these duties as long as the satisfaction of an individual does not compromise on the welfare of other individuals. Besides, the state should define a society form the individual’s disposition rather from the communal view (Jeske and Fumerton 163). The state should create an environment that enables the individual conform to oneself rather than conform to the society. Thomas Hobbes’ ideas are crucial in determining the finite capacity of the state in governing individuals’ affairs. Hobbes defines human beings, in their natural state, as unruly and asocial beings whose interests are rarely unified. This imposes the necessity of the state in harmonizing the interests of individuals. The state, therefore, is a natural consequence of individuals’ disorganized nature. Eventually, states behave as human beings as they develop asocial nature. In this perspective, the state should be subject to regulations that ensure it operates within responsible confines. Individuals should not hold the state as an entity that cannot err. This is because the state reflects the magnitude of disorganization present in a society. It is essential for individuals to create structures that ensure unrelenting transformation of the state towards perfection. John Rawls’ theory is essential in rationalizing the John

Future proofing an organization against talent lost as baby boomers Term Paper

Future proofing an organization against talent lost as baby boomers retired - Term Paper Example The exodus of the baby boomers combined with the falling birth rates will intensify the competition for the global talent. Most of the businesses from the developed world recognize the need to capitalize on the international markets. It helps the companies overcome the challenges of aging work force evident in their domestic market, by tapping into new growing pool of highly educated talent. However, the rapid growth of the economies of the BRIC countries also means that new businesses are entering the markets. The competition is increasing. Most of the organizations are already experiencing stiffer competition as they expand internationally. The entry of new businesses threats to shrink their international market share. The third trend is that, women form a significant portion of the workforce. Having more women working is transforming the workplace and creating new markets. A woman brings a unique perspective on tapping on some of the growing markets. Also having more women working has increased their saving and spending and thus good for the business. In United Kingdom, the female segment is increasing faster. Currently, the generation X and Y forms the majority of the world population. This generation view of life is different from that one of the baby boomers. They have different goals and motivation. This means that different leadership style will be required to motivate them. The business leaders will need skill not only to do business in this broad environment but also to attract and maintain talents from more diverse and fluid workforce. Skills like people’s kills and emotional intelligence will be highly valued. As the global transformation accelerates, it is becoming more crucial to understand the fundamental trends that shape the future of the workplace. It is, therefore, important for todays leader to formulate a vision for future

Panera Bread Business Strategies Essay Example for Free

Panera Bread Business Strategies Essay â€Å"Thirty years ago, Ron Shaich set out to change the world by changing the way America eats. He’s done that with not one, but two successful restaurant brands. By co-founding Au Bon Pain, Co. Inc. and founding Pan-era Bread, Shaich shook up the industry by offering an antithesis to fast food – hand made, artisan food served in warm and welcoming environments by people you can trust. †(KANAI, 2012) This quote describes how Shaich and colleagues started to create their cafe bakery and change the way Americans eat. Pan-era was the first to come out with the calories on the menu board to ensure that Americans were aware of how healthy Pan-era was and the intention to re maim forthcoming about what was in the food we eat. Shaich and his colleagues did not follow the six step process they focused on the four areas food, setting, customers, and the workforce which made sense for capitalism. Shaich also thrived to make sure the customers and employees were well taken care of because they also played a big role in the success of Pan-era and lets not forget to acknowledge the community and their involvement in the success. Conscious Capitalism is an expression of how Shaich has found success in the restaurant industry if the whole society and corporate society would think of themselves as a corporation things would be better for everyone. Shaich is able to offer a word of advice if you were to get involved with conscious capitalism â€Å"Believe in yourself and why you got into it. Believe in those things that attracted you to the industry which makes a big difference in the lives of our guests. (ROMEO, 2012) For many years Pan-era has focused on the principal of conscious capitalism or what they like to call â€Å" enlightened -self interest† in two ways by delivering value to customers, vendors , employees, investors, and the community and to focus on a higher purpose above and beyond short term results. Meaning providing our customers with the artisan bread , delicious and nutritional food on a daily basis. Then Shaich and all his colleagues wanted to know how to challenge conscious capitalism and they figured out somethings that they are already doing like donating the day old bread to homeless.

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition English Language Essay

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition English Language Essay Introduction Language is defined by scholarly linguists as a part of growing up (Cook 2001, p. 46). It is an element of culture regarded as providing motivation to individuals in its own right. It has also been identified as necessary for effective communication and integration into a particular environment. I noted that second languages are different from the primary languages. Second language learning involves some form off acquisition. This is a process by which an individual can effectively learn a second language also known as an additional language. Cook (2001, pp. 41 48) argued that learning second languages requires some form of motivation (2001, p.43). Motivation in this context involves encouraging the individual to overcome all challenges in pursuit of learning another language. Mostly, individuals undergo the hustles of learning a second language for them to conform to the immediate environment. In this paper, I explore Individual learner differences in Second Language acquisition (SLA). I apply Gardners socio-educational model in discussing second language acquisition. The paper also details the significance of motivation and its impact on learning second languages. It applies motivation as the learners orientation regarding learning a second language. The paper divides motivation into two basic types including integrative and instrumental. It relates integrative motivation as being dependent on the positive attitudes of the learner. On the other hand, it relates instrumental motivation as being influenced by a reward in learning second languages. Both forms of motivation in this paper are analyzed and researched to establish the impact of motivation on second language acquisition. The essay will be structured into subsections with a flow expounding on the relevance of motivation as one element that explains individual learner difference in second language acquisition. The first part explains a general overview of individual learner differences. The second part integrates the models of motivation including the works conducted by Gardner and clement in analysing motivations impact on SLA. The last subsection is an overview of the Chilean cultural setting and its impact of motivation for second language learners. This is followed by some suggestions and recommendations of how motivations can be cultivated within such a cultural setting. Individual learner differences in SLA There are diverse learner differences in learning a second language. For one, in learning a second language, there must be the involvement of a second or even a third party. The second party assists in disseminating the knowledge to the individual who wants to learn the language. However, The process of second language acquisition is dependent on what the learner does and very little on what teachers does (Schmitt 2002, p.50). The goals of the individual also bring out the individual learner differences. In learning a second language, some individuals go for communicative competence. This might include basic communication skills, which is the main goal of the individual. I am of the view that the goal of an individual learner is critical because it determines what level the individual has the will to go in learning a second language. My analysis of current debates on SLA reveals that they have embarked on individual differences. Doman (2006) contributed vast literature on this topic asserting that not a single individual is similar to the other physically, psychologically or mentally. Therefore, these differences reveal the reason why individuals learn second languages differently. He supports Piagets theory of cognitive development, which asserts that the human mind is different from the other even in the process of learning. Therefore, I argue that problems, frustrations and challenges as being part of SLA affect the individuals differently. The individuals differ in the way they handle such issues, which ultimately determines how they learn a second language. Generally, Individual learner differences are evident in SLA, explanations have been provided by major scholars in this context. However, the ideal way to explain these differences is through developing an understanding of some of the models espoused by scholars on motivation and SLA. Conversely, second languages are difficult to learn, which has been a huge challenge for many individuals. Motivation is therefore defined as critical in the entire process. Motivation is defined by major scholars including Hedge (2000, pp. 17 28), Ellis (2005, pp. 305-352), McDonough (2007, pp. 369-371) and Celce-Murcia (2002, pp. 119-134) as the psychological quality essential for fostering individual goal achievement. Therefore, I can argue that in second language acquisitions, language proficiency is the main goal. The individuals desire to master a language is the main goal, which motivates him or her to work towards its achievement. Scholars have supported this argument by asserting that coaches can motivate learners and vice versa in the process of learning. With such assertion, there is a clear view that motivation varies between individuals. An individual is therefore unique in his own way depending on his or her stipulated goal of learning the second language. Motivation is also a transitive concept. In this context, the coach motivates the learners and their reception also motivates the coach to teach the language. Gottlieb (2006, pp. 56) asserted that the long-drawn out process of learning a second language is the reason why individual differences exist in SLA. In his article on Teaching and Researching Motivation, Dornyei (2001, pp. 28 30) argued that people have diverse cognitive behaviours. In this case, individuals respond differently to diverse environments. Therefore, it is arguable that individuals always differ in their reception to language learning situations. The book by Lightbown Spada (1993, p.135) also supported this notion asserting that individuals have diverse preferences. The environment in itself is a great determinant of the diverse response by individuals, and this has a great impact in language learning. Conversely, I argue that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determines the level of individual learning. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations subject the individual to a particular level of acceptance in second language acquisition. In the same light, individuals handle intrinsic and extrinsic pressures differently, which makes them different in the way they learn a second language. Ellis (2005, pp. 305-352) supported these arguments by writing an article on individual differences in second language learning. He was of the view that an individual is subjective to internal and external pressures even in the process of learning a language. Earlier, Skehan (1991, pp. 12 19) had written a book on Individual differences in second-language learning. He was of the same view. It is therefore notable that the way the individual handles these pressures is what determines the level of success in second language learning. Models of Second Language Acquisition For decades, studies of motivation as a factor of SLA have covered issues related to reasons for learning. Empirical evidence from major case studies reveals that most of the people strive to acquire a second language in order to integrate with the speech an identified community. Research over the last thirty years has ignored the role of motivation in SLA (Mitchell and Myles 2004, p.71 85). However, other scholars have concentrated on motivation as a determinant factor in SLA. I therefore note that motivation is viewed as being affected by various issues in the process of SLA. Some of these issues include demands of self-instruction, overwhelming requirements, and challenges of coping with the new materials and personal progress assessment, inadequacy of feedback, among other frustrations. In this context, the individual is either motivated or de-motivated into learning a second language. Mitchell and Myles (2004, pp. 71 85) identified Gardners model of SLA as covering major issues in the area of motivation. Gardners works were influenced by Mowrer (1950) who had earlier discussed more on first language acquisition. My argument draws that the success of learning a language is attributed to the desire to learn it. A child struggles to learn a language to gain identity within the family. The objective is similar to Gardners argument who asserted that acceptance into the wider language community fosters the need to learn a new language. Using this argument Gardners model aimed at investigating second language acquisition and how motivates influences the same. Before examining motivation as an element that has an impact on second language learning, Gardner acknowledged that it is a single variable that is subject to other factors. My point is that motivation alone does not affect the SLA process. The socio-educational model as espoused by Gardner identified several facto rs that also influence language learning. Gardners model identified a structured classroom setting as the main setting for learning a second language. He prefers the foreign language classroom as compared to a natural setting arguing that the earlier is dependent more on motivation. Second Language acquisition is therefore pertinent to many issues and factors. Like Gardner argues, his model interrelate second language acquisition with at least four features including individual learner differences, social and cultural milieu, the setting in which learning process is facilitated and the linguistic outcomes (Gardner 1982). The social or cultural milieu is the immediate environment where the learner is situated. Cook (2001, pp. 41 48) was of the view that, the learners environment subjects him or her to beliefs about a particular language or culture. I also analyze that beliefs impact the way and individual perceives the language and his or her willingness to learn a new language. Gardner gave an example of Britain as a monocultural setting. In this context, the British have a notion that they are the superior culture. Therefore, they do not acknowledge learning another language as critical. Rather, they have a notion that other minority cultures should learn thei r language and assimilate into the system. This culture instils these believes in the context of becoming the dominant language of the country. Larsen-Freeman (2001, pp. 12-24) noted that there are many cultures across the globe, which regards themselves as mighty cultures. In this context, they tend to influence other cultures other than assimilating into them. Therefore, individuals within the majority culture are lowly motivated to learn new languages. Patsy and Nina (2006, pp. 86 102) regarded these cultures as monocultural communities. However, Gardners social and cultural milieu applies differently in other countries. I have come to note that in some countries such as Canada and Australia, bilingualism and biculturalism is encouraged among the people. The society is therefore motivated into acquiring new languages. On the other hand, Gottlieb (2006, pp. 52 76) supported this notion noting that the social settings develop certain attitudes towards learning another language. I assume that these attitudes are the basis of an individuals motivation towards learning another language. The second phase of the model discusses individual differences including intelligence, motivation variable, language aptitude, and situational anxiety (Giles and Coupland 1991). These variables differ from one setting to the other and are closely interrelated. Mitchell and Myles (2004, pp. 71 85) argued that it is critical for second language teachers to set the learning places appropriately for effective learning to take place. Two contexts are identified in discussion the setting. They include formal instruction and unstructured language acquisition. The identified variables have diverse impacts depending on the context. For instance, intelligence and aptitude influence the formal setting within a classroom. On the other hand anxiety and motivation are variables which have an impact on both the formal and informal setting. Gardners model explains the final phase of SLA as linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes. The linguistic outcomes are regarded as the actual language including the skills and knowledge acquired. Hurd, Beaven, and 2001, pp. 341-355) supported the definition by giving examples of linguistic outcomes as including test indices such as proficiency tests. On the other hand Dornyei (2001, pp. 28 30) defines non-linguistic outcomes as the attitudes, which an individual develops towards the language. This is subject to the values and beliefs of the individual. Therefore I can argue that integrating both the linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes develops success in SLA. It develops a form of motivation and an individual can develop a higher degree of L2 proficiency. Gardners model asserted that motivation is composed of three elements. The identified elements include effort, affect and desire. He describes effort as an individuals devotion in terms of time and resources used. Desire on the o ther hand is the willingness to acquire L2 proficiency. Finally, effect includes the response of the individual pertinent to the emotional reactions with regard to SLA. An almost similar model of SLA is espoused by Clement. Clementss Model of motivation espouses that self-confidence is the most critical element in motivation of SLA. The model asserts that, it is critical for individuals to develop self-confidence when learning a second language. Therefore learning a second language is hugely challenging. Conversely, any level of success is dependent on how much an individual is willing to commit him into the process. In this context, it depends with the level of sacrifice that an individual can sustain in order to achieve a desired goal. In a book titled how languages are learned Lightbown Spada (1993, p.135) argued that self-confidence motivates an individual to achieve the ultimate goal of learning a new language. The individual is successful in learning a new language by developing own initiatives. These initiatives develop from the individuals confidence to learn a language and the persistence even with the challenges involves. The individual is therefore the determinant of how he or she learns a language. I have come to value the assertion that the level of persistence and confidence in learning the second language structures the trend of learning a new language. Having understood the models of motivation in SLA, it is critical to develop this context and apply it within a cultural setting. Applying the models brings out the real sense and understanding of the types of motivates and the existent challenges. It also gives an opportunity to understand how these challenges can be overcome to support second language learning. The Chilean cultural setting has been identified in this discussion as critical for assessing motivation as a critical element of language and acquisition. Chilean Cultural Setting and SLA The Chilean cultural setting is evident of low attendance in classes. In this context, the students are lowly motivated to learn English as a second language. Low attendance in classes means that the individual students do not ascribe to the goal of learning second languages. They are not motivated to attend classes, which challenges the process of learning a second language. In the same line of argument teachers are also lowly motivated by the students behaviour. They are therefore tired of devoting their time to teaching in these classes. A Chilean teacher works for over 44 hours a week in front of a class, which is quite tiring because they do not have enough time to rest. The teachers therefore are unmotivated in delivering class lessons. Therefore, they do not have the zeal to motivate students in learning. The huge classes in Chilean contexts are also a huge challenge for both teachers and students in the process of learning. The class population is between 38 and 45 students p er class, which is a huge number that a single teacher can handle. In this context, both teachers and students are unmotivated in the learning process. In considering learning English as a second language, the Chilean context is quite difficult. Within the system, English classes take only 90 minutes per week. This is less time compared to other lessons and the time assigned for the same. The time assigned for learning English as a second language is not enough to deliver effective learning. Time therefore, limits both the teachers and the students in the process of learning a second language. It is also a big challenge for students to learn English as a second language because they have low levels of interest. The learners also portray a negative attitude toward English learning, which is an indication that learners are hugely challenged. Students within this culture do not consider English as a useful tool for everyday life. They tend to value their local language more to English, which is an aspect that challenged the process of learning a second language. The remote geographical location of the country is also a huge challenge f or SLA because the Chileans cannot access other English-speaking countries easily. They are therefore entrenched into the same culture without external influences, which could provoke a need for SLA. Types of Motivation in SLA There are diverse forms of motivation which can be applied within the Chilean context in handling the issue of second language acquisition. The three mostly identified types of motivation include integrative, instrumental motivation and integrative vs. instrumental motivation. Integrative Motivation Mitchell and Myles (2004, pp. 71 85) identified motivation as the learners orientation regard his or her goal of learning a second language. In this line of argument, it was identified that students who develop interest in learning a second language become more successful. There is need to develop huge interest among Chilean students in learning a second language. Celce-Murcia (2002, pp. 119-134) argued that the idea is to enforce an integration of cultures in order to provoke need for learning a second language. The students need to be provoked to admire another culture for them to develop an interest of learning another language. The students would also be provoked to integrate into the wider society and this entails learning a second language. This is what Doughty (2001, pp. 206-257) regards as integrative motivation. Integrative motivation assists the learner to develop and increase language proficiency for him or her to integrate into the system. This kind of motivation forces the individual to operate socially and become a part of the vast community. In an EFL setting such as Chile it is critical to develop an understanding of the term integrative. As Hudson (2000, pp. 18 25) suggests, integrative motivation develops when an individual desires to become bilingual in nature. This is the same as becoming bicultural and living within the limits of the two cultures. Skehan (1991, pp. 12 19) argued that the ultimate result is to add another language to the identity of the learner. As Chile is more of a monocultural society, the biggest challenge is to engage integrative motivation in order to overcome the challenges involved in (L2) acquisition. Instrumental Motivation Doughty (2001, pp. 206-257) concentrated more on explaining instrumental motivation. He argued that this type of motivation is in contrast to integrative motivation. The major characteristics of this kind of motivation are individual desires to obtain something practical after learning a second language (Mitchell and Myles 2004, pp. 71 85). In the Chilean context, this type of motivation can be applied diversely. Within this culture, globalization has led to the introduction of new companies. Within these companies, most of the employees have to be outsourced locally. With English being mandatory as a requirement when applying for these jobs, the Chileans can be motivated to learn it as a second language. Hedge (2000, pp. 17 28) noted that instrumental motivation is provoked by issues such as job application, graduation in various institutions and other work related issues including pay rise. It might be the desire of individuals to learn a second language but circumstances force t hem to do it and even equip them to handle challenges. With students in the Chilean context not willing to learn a new language, the introduction of English as a requirement for graduation would be a motivating factor to learn it as a second language. It is my view that this type of motivation is ambitious in nature and compelling. The individual learner has a choice to avoid it but external pressures are too strong and compel him or her to learn the second language. Conversely, integrative and instrumental motivation has been identified as both applicable in different context. When applied appropriately, both types of motivation lead to certain levels of success. However, integrative motivation is regarded by Ehrman and DÃ ¶rnyei (1998, pp. 34 41) as ideal for long-term success in second language learning. Integrative motivation works best in both formal and informal situations. Within the natural setting and the classroom situation, integrative motivation is better compared to instrumental motivation. Dornyei (2001, pp. 28 30) identified instrumental motivation as weak because it sometimes does not reflect the individual will to learn. Individuals in this case rely more on circumstances than their will to learn. It is a short term type of motivation and thus not very effective. Conclusion Various scholars have identified that there are individual learner difference in second language acquisition. As part of culture, language is described as an element of growing up. Language is also regarded as an element of culture that provides motivation to individuals in its own right. Just like any other cultural element, language is acquired differently from one individual to another. A similar case has been identified for second languages. In learning second languages, motives, goals and motivation have been identified and developing differences among individuals. In learning second languages integrative and instrumental types of motivation influence the individual differently. On the other hand, individuals conceptualize these types of motivation differently. Gardners socio-educational model, Clementss Model of motivation and Piagets theory of cognitive development, explain into detail how motivation influences SLA. The broad argument is that there is a great correlation betwe en SLA and motivation. Motivation is a variable that determines the level and success of learning a second language.

Adidas and Adidas Pops Competitive Advantage

Adidas and Adidas Pops Competitive Advantage Three strategies that will Increase Adidas and Adidas Pops Competitive Advantage A competitive advantage is modelled around the question of why a consumer should purchase a product from a given company when there are other numerous alternatives (Gebauer, Gustafsson Witell, 2011). According to Kumar et al. (2011), competitive advantage is the force behind a companys sustainability and long-term survival, and as a result, scholars have devised numerous frameworks such as the 5Cs of marketing and Porters five-force model to evaluate the organisational competitive advantage. In this section I have identified three strategies that a high number of firms employ to gain a competitive advantage and which could be employed to increase the competitive advantage of Adidas and its new product Adidas Pop. 1. Differentiation Over the years it has become apparent that markets have become most turbulent and competitive for manufacturing firms and pricing strategies are no longer sufficient to keep an organisation competitive (Gebauer, Gustafsson Witell, 2011; Valipour, Birjandi Honarbakhsh, 2012). In some industries however, businesses still use price wars to undermine their competitors (Zhang Round, 2011). However, lowering prices for competitiveness is unsustainable in the long run and, as a result, many companies have resorted to other strategies to help differentiate themselves from competitors (Valipour, Birjandi Honarbakhsh, 2012).ÂÂ   According to Valipour, Birjandi Honarbakhsh (2012), traditionally, manufacturing organisations focused on products to the neglect of customer needs. However, this approach has changed and now, customer needs largely inform the product process (Kumar et al., 2011). The Adidas differentiation strategy is built around establishing the company as a premium qualit y and highly innovative brand that not only sells sports apparel but can positively impact consumer lifestyles (Kohli Jaworski, 1990). To achieve this strategy, Adidas has developed a number of highly innovative products and has also collaborated with high profile fashion designers to create sportswear that is both functional and fashionable (Adidas, 2016). The move has led many consumers around the world to use Adidas products as a fashion statement instead of for sportswear (Gebauer, Gustafsson Witell, 2011), which has seen the Adidas market share grow in line with its business strategy. As part of the Adidas product range, Adidas Pop will utilise a similar customer-centric differentiation strategy to set itself apart in the emerging markets of Asia. Despite retailing at a comparatively premium price, Adidas Pop will appeal to the targeted markets 19 to 29 year-olds who want to live the Adidas lifestyle. This differentiation strategy will require the input of the marketing and p roduction departments, as well as the RD unit to collect consumer wants and capture them in a product that accurately addresses their needs. To measure the success of the differentiation strategy, the organisation will evaluate the development and products costs with actual sales. 2. Alliances Strategic partnerships are vital to businesses, as evidenced by Adidas decision to form an alliance with Reebok to penetrate the North American market and outsource its manufacturing functions to third parties in China to cut on production costs (Evans Richardson, 2007). Furthermore, Adidas has also formed alliances with distributors such as wholesalers and franchisees, to penetrate markets that are otherwise too costly for the company to set their shops in (Adidas, 2016a). Without these strategic alliances with both manufacturers and distributors in China, the vision for Adidas Pop would be impossible or extremely costly to establish. However, because of Adidas strategic partnerships, the Adidas Pop can be operationalised and could possibly break even within the first year. However, while strategic alliances are increasingly becoming a popular practice in the corporate world, they are not always beneficial to all involved parties (Hamel Pralahad, 1985; Tax Brown, 1998). For examp le, critics observe that after 11 years of an alliance, Reebok lags in sales, in which while the three other brands profits have been growing at 16 percent annually, for the same period, those of Reebok grow by approximately five percent (Adidas, 2016). In such cases, Buhalis Crotts (2013) suggest the use of partnership performance measurement systems such as the Balanced Scorecard to determine the financial and non-financial position of Adidas Pops potential allies. 3. Cost Leadership Developed by Michael Porter, cost leadership is a way of establishing a competitive advantage by keeping costs at the lowest level (Kaliappen Hilman, 2013) If the cost for Adidas products can be kept lower than those of Nike or its other competitors then it is possible to create a competitive advantage. It is important to note however that keeping costs at the lowest level possible is not such an easy task. Costs need to be managed across the entire chain from the very beginning to the very end. According to Kaliappen Hilman (2013), a balanced mix of a cost leadership strategy enhances organisational performance. Cost leadership is mainly internal-oriented as opposed to other competitive strategies such as the differentiation strategy that focus on the external environment (D. Banker, Mashruwala Tripathy, 2014). According to D. Banker, Mashruwala Tripathy (2014), cost leadership involves total costs control, in which, the production budget is solely focused on the most necessary processes. Adidas main competitive strategies are differentiation and strategic alliances. However, cost leadership will also be a useful strategy for Adidas Pop, in which the central focus will be total cost minimisation. Moreover, cost leadership is beneficial in keeping debts levels down and monitoring operations costs (Valipour, Birjandi Honarbakhsh, 2012).

Universal Human Rights Essay -- Human Rights

Are Human Rights a phenomenon without merit or a crucial aspect of our inter-governmental/inter-societal system? Some would argue that the foundation of human rights contradicts the means. For instance, when discussing the use of the term â€Å"Universal Human Rights,† we often forget that the term â€Å"universal† instigates nations to follow under one set doctrine of particular principles (Ronin, Bruce, and Hurd, 2008). The contradiction lies within the entity which promotes said norms, the United Nations; within it, the international non-governmental entity seeks out ways of promoting their vision of a world bound by a code of conduct and a common goal of peace and co-existence. The problem is how does one go about doing implementing human rights on a universal scale while respecting a state’s right to sovereignty and direction of law (Orford, 2003)? And by extension, how does the international community as a whole work towards enforcing said principles if a s tate opposes it? These questions act as the foundation of an argument that is shared throughout the international community; who has the right to implement and enforce human rights norms and by what authority shall that entity utilize to complete such an objective? Argument/Analysis First of all, let us analyze the global political system in its current form as to fully grasp the convoluted nature of international politics. One could argue that the ever changing global political scene is directly attributed to the multilateral approach to dealing with issues relevant to state sovereignty and intervention. In this instance, nation states often take it upon themselves to directly address particular conflicts oceans away. In other cases, we notice that the United Nations, a non-go... ... it. Whether by the strength of an individual state or the wit of an international organization, upholding human rights must be the primary goal when determining the need for intervention. Works Cited 1) Valentino, Benjamin A. 2011. "The True Costs of Humanitarian Intervention." Foreign Affairs (6.60) 2) Daalder, Ivo H. 2007. Beyond Preemption: Force and Legitimacy in a Changing World. Brookings Institution Press. 3) Ronin, Bruce, and Ian Hurd. 2008. UN Security Council and the Politics of International Authority. Taylor & Francis Routledge 4) Orford, A. (2003). Reading Humanitarian Intervention: Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law. Cambridge University Press. 5) Donnelly, Jack. 1984. "HUMAN RIGHTS, HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY: Law, Morality and Politics." Journal of International Affairs 37, no. 2: 311.

The Drovers Wife: Hardship of Life in the Outback :: Drovers Wife Essays

The Drover's Wife: Hardship of Life in the Outback The short-story "The Drover's Wife" is written by Henry Lawson, Australia's most famous short-story writer and poet. "The Drover's Wife" is probably Lawson's best-known work, and was first published in the collection entitled "While the Billy Boils" in 1892. Lawson was deeply interested in the effects of the harsh Australian outback on people's lives, having himself spent 18 months in the bush. This was expressed in a number of so-called "bush ballads" and stories, "The Drover's Wife" being one of them. This short-story has the Australian bush or outback as its setting. This is revealed in the two first paragraphs, where the author makes a short and precise description of the little house and the surrounding landscape. To tell the time of the story is, however, more difficult. The text gives us only a few clues to when it might have happened. The most obvious one is, "The drought of 18 - ruined him". First I thought that 18 meant 1918, but considering that the short-story was written in 1892, this must be wrong. The year referred to is most probably 1818. The main conflict in "The Drover's Wife" is perhaps not so evident as we may think. At first it is quite easy to imagine that there is a conflict between the bush woman and the snake. The reason for that is that the snake is a threat to the woman. If she does not kill it, the snake can bite one of the children, which will be a disaster since it is nineteen miles to the nearest neighbor. The child would be dead before they could get help. However, this conflict is only a consequence of the main conflict, which is mentioned in a sentence early in the text, "The drover, an ex-squatter, is away with sheep. His wife and children are left here alone." The main problem is that the wife is left alone to deal with the hardships of life in the Australian bush. In my opinion Lawson uses the incident with the snake to uncover the bush woman's struggles against the outback. The point of view used in "The Drover's Wife" is the Third person Limited voice. Lawson has told the story form the bush woman's perspective. That allows us to see into her thoughts and feelings.

Chemistry uncertainty conical flask Essay

The conical flask was weighted with the balance and the value was recorded. 2) The beaker was filled with distilled water and the water was added into the conical flask up to the 60 mL mark. The dropper was used when water level was approaching the 60 mL mark. 3) The weight of the conical flask containing water was recorded. 4) The mass of water was found by subtracting the weight of conical flask from the weight of conical flask with water. 5) The volume of water was found from the mass of water . 6) Steps 1) to 5) were repeated ten times. 7) 60 mL was subtracted from each of the calculated volume of water. 8) The data obtained from step 7) were compared with each other and the largest value was taken as the absolute uncertainty of the conical flask. -The volume of water poured into the conical flask was being decided while the uncertainty of the conical flask, calculated from the experimental  volume subtracting theoretical volume of water, was being investigated. -The same conical flask and electronic balance was used throughout the experiment to ensure the results were not to be affected by the difference in apparatus used. -The volume readings were taken from the bottom of the meniscus of liquid and it was made sure all the liquid was emptied to ensure accurate reading of volume. – A dropper was used when the water level approached 50 mL mark of the conical flask to prevent solution from overflowing the mark and to ensure accurate reading of volume of solution. -Only distilled water was used in the experiment to access fair results in all rounds of experiments. -The uncertainties of the balance were neglected because the value ( ±0.0001g) was too small and has very little effect on the results. -10 sets of data were taken into account for more accurate results. -The experiment was done in room temperature and in an environment of same wind speed to prevent the experimental results from being affected. -The exterior and the upper 1/3 part of the interior of the conical flask was wiped dry with tissue paper before every set of experiment was carried out to assure accurate measurement of the mass of water contained. -The density of water is assumed to be 1 g/dm ³. The result of the experiment has shown that the uncertainty of a 100mL conical flask is 2mL. Comparing to a 100 mL volumetric flask, which has absolute uncertainty of 0.08mL, a conical flask is rather uncertain and will give inaccurate results. This explains why a conical flask is usually used for holding chemicals (for example in titration, it is used for containing the solution being titrated against and the indicator) instead of used for giving measurements. In this experiment, an observation was that the value displayed on the balance fluctuated within 0.0004 g. This observation was noted as it implied that even though the wind speed was kept constant around the environment (for example fans and air conditioner turned off), the movements generated by man or usage of balance had minor effect on the accuracy of the result. The effect of these small errors on the result can be eliminated by carrying out more rounds of the experiment, or by repeating with different electronic balances. Further investigation could be done on finding the values of uncertainty of different sizes and grades of conical flasks. By repeating the experiment with different sizes and grades of conical flasks, we can gain understanding in different instruments and the result might be used as reference in future experiments involving conical flasks.

The Leader of Future

Running Head THE LEADER OF THE emerging Chantell Hilliard Post University The Leader of the proximo four-in-hand 508 December 15, 2012 Professor Carolyn Shiffman Table of table of contents executive Overview. 3 Ch all(prenominal)enges for time to come pourboireership. .. 4 Blueprint for self-propelling be after. .. 4 Areas of focus for loss attractorship of the barbeling.. .. 5 Lessons from ultimo attractorship.. . . 7 Future genesisal Workforce.. .. 8 Conclusion. . . . 9 References. . .. 10 Executive OverviewWhat does the drawing card of in store(predicate)(a) look exchangeable? This question reflects on the Baby baby boomers multiplication transitions into retirement leaving the next times to move into leadinghiphip positions. For the next extension to transition into the once Baby Boomer men, in store(predicate) attracters subscribe to to search a range of challenges. This generation dep subterfuge indigence to attain how to monitor outer threat s and opportunities that rotter affect an establishment. leading of the future experience antithetical leading look from their counterparts. The next generation allow stupefy to learn from prehistorical leading behaviors. Future leading pick up to produce engineering science savvy.They impart also deal to become acquainted with different cultures and practice the art of sh bed leadership. To succeed in a competitive demarcation domain, future leaders testament fuck off to develop a leadership air that fits the standards of an authentic leader. Challenges for leaders of the future As the stage business world changes, leadership roles give present challenges. The challenges that a leader ordain face subtle how to communicate is an important aspect for leaders to be good. Through consequenceive communication, leaders advertize some separates to trust and read what is take to be entere within the presidency.However, without trenchant communication a leader may not be able to lead his or her group efficaciously. Another distinctive challenge that leaders of the future will encounter argon managing impinges. Future leaders will impart to recognize conflict that is necessary and conflict that distracts subordinates and escalates. A leader who does not address conflict abide see results confounded productivity and lost revenue. If leaders of future want to increment performance they need to learn how to retch aside personal feelings while traffic with conflicts among employees.Blueprint for dynamic planning The blueprint for dynamic planning is how a leader assesses external and internal analysis on opportunities and threats lining the organization environs. For an organization to yield success, a leader needs to complete a lift analysis. Completing a SWOT analysis will enable a leader to focus on the organization strengths and weaknesses, spot opportunities, and lastly analyze e genuinely threats. The SWOT framewo rk is a healthy planning tool that helps a leader understand the organization nice in the market and distinguish the fellowship from their competitors.Monitoring the external environment requires a leader to understand opportunities for the organization and threats that will hurt the organization emergence. These external elements include customers, government, economy, rivalry, and populace perception. The richness of customer relationships female genital organ help a company find ways to work on their customers to buy products and to improve sales. Government regulations atomic number 18 important to monitor because revolutionary laws and regulations can affect a company acquire margins and determine if a company can ship their products into foreign markets.The external business environment can also exert the pres trusteds of the economy. A leader should play culmination attention to the economy growing or collapsing. Monitoring the state of economy is decisive for l eaders in the ever changing business world. For example, companies might need to land prices during recessions. Because of the various economic shifts, leaders of the future will need to adapt their trade strategies. Competition has a significant effect on an organization external environment because competitors are continually differentiating their products and service from its competitors.Monitoring the competition will allow a leader to feed a competitive utility in the market. Lastly, a future leader should monitor any scandals or interdict perceptions about the company. While a detrimental image can hurt company sales, it can eventually hinder growth and success. Areas of focus for leaders of the future If future leaders want to be effective they need to increase their focus on new technologies, appreciation of ethnic diversity, and learn how to share leadership. Because of the rapid technological changes in the world, future business leaders need to be technology savv y.Having the ability to pick out the importance of technology, gives the future leader a competitive edged. Technology as we agnize it continues to evolve. Bennis (1992) suggest that leaders of the future need to embrace technology, if not they are sure to be unsuccessful on capitalizing on the opportunities that arise in this fast-evolving competitive sphere (Bennis, 1992, p. 189). The business world is becoming global. leading of the future should focus on cultural diversity because a cultural assorted workplace promotes several advantages for an organization.If leaders dont respect the differences in other pluralitys cultural punctuate they may risk falling nates as an effective leader. Understanding other communitys culture is considered a good business practice. If future leaders want to succeed in the business world, they need to implement motivational strategies that will inspire people in different cultures. To achieve a arbitrary and cooperative environment, lead ers have to embrace vulgar respect amongst their diverse colleagues. Leaders of the future should understand that sharing leadership is not an easy task but instead possible.The following are ways leaders can share leadership * own power away to the near strung-out individuals to strengthen their capabilities (Goldsmith, 2010, p. 1). * Define the limits of decision-making power (Goldsmith, 2010, p. 1). * take a climate in which people feel free to take opening move on assignments (Goldsmith, 2010, p. 1). * Give qualified people discretion and autonomy over their tasks and resources and encourage them to use these tools (Goldsmith, 2010, p. 1). * Dont second guess the decisions of those you have empowered to do so (Goldsmith, 2010, p. ). Lessons from past leadership To be successful, a leader must learn lessons from past leadership behaviors. Many past leaders have engaged in banish and cocksure behaviors that can affect the organization. Following lordly leadership behavior s will allow a leader to practices a leadership drift that involves grammatical construction an empowering workplace. Future leaders should filtrate to develop fairness. Having fair play means building trust with your followers. Most importantly, a leader who leads with integrity means sticking to their word.Past leadership has shown that integrity requires a leader to have self-awareness. Self-awareness means that a leader is aware of their strengths and weaknesses. For example, if a leader pretends to have it off everything and doesnt acknowledge their mistakes, this creates the perception of lack of integrity from their followers. Leadership without integrity can have drastic consequences for any organization. Unfortunately, the Enron scandal is corking example on how Enron leaders compromised integrity with their desires for wealth and power. Enron executives unethical practices left a scar on corporate America.Enrons lack of integrity results in thousands of jobs lost, pensions lost, public disgrace, and felony convictions. The Enron fiasco should teach leaders of tomorrow that a true leader has the province to be open and open with their followers, have good character, obey the law and to leave truthful data at all times. From a personal perspective, my core beliefs are solid and promote a positive leadership in the workplace. Having core determine like integrity defines who I am as an authentic leader. I model integrity by being honest and making the right choices.Blanchard (2010) suggests that, integrity is the most essential element of leadership (p. 180). I believe that having integrity results in a leader being seen as credible to others. Without it, a person will get going as a leader. Leading by attention and intimidation are blackball behaviors that future leaders should avoid. The problem with leading by fear is that it kills creativity in the workplace. Sadly, these tactics has been used by many leaders in organizations. Future leaders need to understand that leading by fear can have negative several repercussions.Leaders who lead through much(prenominal) means will find that this leadership style is not an effective approach for motivating, inspiring, and empowering their followers. As a result, this behavior creates incredulity and high turnover among employees. Many will argue that this tactic can be beneficial for an organization. Apple Inc. , CEO Steve Jobs is a prime example on past leaders who lead by fear. Steve Jobs has been exposit as a complex and go-as-you-please leader. His tyrannical leadership style created an tune that employee received verbal lashings and fear of making mistakes.Steve Jobs successfully implemented creation and provided success with Apple Inc. However, his style is expense learning so leaders of the future can avoid the pitfalls of leading with despotical leadership. Future Generational Workforce consort to researchers by 2020 the future generational manpower wil l be led by three generations attempting to coexist in the US economy (Nahavandi, 2010). Currently, the work force is comprised of baby boomers natural between 1946-1964, Generation X natural between 1966-1980, and the workforce of the future Generation Y also known as millennians born between 1980-2000.Because Baby Boomers are approaching retirement, employers are looking to the Millennial generation to bring in of import new perspectives that will cater the organization mission and goals. The Millennial generation will approach their expectations and beliefs from an entirely new way that goes beyond traditional behaviors. What sets this generation away from their older counterparts is that they are not panic-stricken of the change. Therefore, their attitudes towards work are different from their parents because they favour flexibility.Generation Y has high expectations from their employers and the direction of their life history path. They are consistently seeking new and i nnovative challenges that will allow them to effectively lead others. Millennials leaders are very different from their previous generations because they rely heavily on the internet as a form of resource, communication and networking. This generation will overtake the majority American workforce by storm and their leadership style will be influenced by leaders before them.These leaders will have no problem attracting and retaining followers because they are motivated to understand their subordinates perspectives. Conclusion In conclusion, as the workforce changes so does the look of leaders. These future leaders have to be prepared for the unannounced and unexplained challenges. Therefore, as the next generation enters leadership roles they will have to know more than traditional business practices seen by generations before. For an organization to survive, these future leaders should have a set of core value that followers will trust and respect.References Bennis, W. G. (1992). Leaders on Leadership. Boston, MA Harvard clientele examine Books. Blanchard, K. H. , (2010) Leading at a high Level Blanchard on Leadership and Creating naughty Performing Organizations, Upper Saddle River, N. J. Pearson/ assimilator Hall. Goldsmith, M. (2010, May). Sharing leadership to Maximize Talent. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved December 15, 2012 from http//blogs. hbr. org/goldsmith/2010/05/sharing_leadership_to_maximize. html Nahavandi, A. (2012). The artistic creation and Science of Leadership. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson Education.

Is Competition Good

Re cypher of Industrial ecesis 19 3748, 2001. 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 37 Is rivalry Such a Good intimacy? Static Ef? ciency versus Dynamic Ef? ciency chase after BLAUG University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Abstr motivate. This paper enlargeresses the rule for fair legislation. It is a striking concomitant t palpebra the legitimacy of antitrust honor has been engineern for granted in the United States perpetu eithery since the Sher humanity Act of 1890 and, until the advent of the eacheged(prenominal) moolah take aim, it was regular taken for granted by conservative Ameri privy economists.Europeans, on the discover pot, slang cease particularly been lukewarm ab knocked out(p) legal professionalcess against trusts and cartels and this attitude is found right across the political spectrum in near European countries. N perpetu every last(predicate)ytheless, in nigh(prenominal) the U. S. A. and Europe, the ult imate besidesi? cation for antitrust law derives from economic hold of judgment regarding the bene? cial set fairish about of controversy. exactly what exactly atomic come in 18 these bene? cial gravel and how secure is the contention of economists that ambition is continuously true to monopoly?Surprisingly enough, competitor, that central c erstwhilept of economic science, is widely be amiss by m either economists, twain as a foodstuff phenomenon and as an organizing principle of economic reasoning. I. A Little Hi flooring of Thought I make by drawing what I believe is a funda psychological distinction in the hi apologue of political miserliness, as distant back as Adam smith or correct William Petty, mingled with two polar nonions of what is think oft by opposition, namely, emulation as an end- give tongue to of rest in the rivalry between buyers and sellers and controversy as a process of rivalry that whitethorn or whitethorn non shapeinat e in an end-state.In the end-state foundation of re importantder, the focus of attention is on the nature of the balance state in which the contest between trans playing agents is ? n participator impersonatetle if there is recognition of transplant at in all, it is multifariousness in the sense of a youthful nonmoving remainder of endogenous varicapables in response to an modify set of exogenous variables scarce proportional statics is lock onward an end-state fantasyion of economic science. However, in the process concept of argument, what is in the foreground of analysis is non the existence of equilibrium, alone sort of the stability of that equilibrium state.How do grocery stores discipline when one equilibrium is displaced by a nonher and at what speed leave behind these markets converge to a late equilibrium? But, surely, all theories of contestation do twain existence and stability atomic number 18 tied up together and to study one is to study the other? By no means, however it is easy to figure that, for centuries, contest to economists meant an active process of jockeying for advantage, laddering towards, and neer positively culminating in, an 38 MARK BLAUG equilibrium end-state.Only in 1838, in Cour nons mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth was the process conception of contender totally displaced by the end-state conception of market-clearing equilibria. At ? rst this did not succeed in wiping the slate totally easy of an interest in hawkish processes alone in the decade of the 1930s those historic period of high surmise as George Shackle citeed them the Monopolistic Competition renewing and the yahoos-Samuelson rehabilitation of Walrasian usual equilibrium supposition, forti? d by the raw Welf ar Economies, succeeded in enthroning the end-state conception of contender and enthroning it so decisively that the process view of rivalry was virtually buried out of sight. Let me e confin ementate. It is a striking feature of the language of The Wealth of Nations that the term competition invariably appears with a de? nite or inde? nite article preceding it a competition between peachys the competition with private traders, and so forth.For Smith, competition is not a state or situation, as it is for Cournot and for us, except a doingsal activity it is a race the original sense of the verb to compete between two or a good deal various(prenominal)s to dispose of excess submit or to obtain approximates available in limited quantities. What we directly call competition or the market instrument was for him the obvious and simple-minded system of natural emancipation, meaning no much than an absence seizure of restraints or ree eyeshadeing entry into industries and occupations. Neither competition nor monopoly was a publication of the number of sellers in a market monopoly did not mean a single seller but a situation of less than consummate agent mobil ity and hence inelastic supply and the opposite of competition, was not monopoly, but co-operation. Producers in The Wealth of Nations treat equipment casualty as a variable in consent with the buoyancy of their sales, ofttimes kindred endeavors in recent theories of im sodding(a) competition.This was not a conception invented by Smith because by 1776, competition had long been examine by a whole series of eighteenth century authors as a process which leases atypical market legal injurys into line with salute-covering natural prices, those natural prices were and so the central price, to which the prices of all commodities be insistently gravitating, and in recording that Smith invoked newfangledtonian language to dignify a conception of price-determination that had a long usage going back to the s pointteenth century. To obtain that end-state in which market prices equal natural prices and the rate of pro? is equalized between industries, there had to be a consid erable number of rivals, possessing common k at a timeledge of market opportunities they had to be free to attain and exit polar lines of investiture but that was all and even that much was neer spelled out statedly as necessary prerequisites for competition whole once did Smith ever remark the number of rival ? rms involved in competition. It was Cournot who ? rst had the design of sellers facing a horizontal direct arch when their numbers become so overlarge that none can in? uence the price of their own product.Competition, which once meant the way in which ? rms take trace of how their rivals react to their actions, now meant little more than the slope of the that revenue curve depriving ? rms in the limit of some(prenominal)(prenominal) power to make the price. Thus was born, decades before the fringy Revolution of the 1870s what IS tilt SUCH A candid THING? 39 one create verballyr has wittily called the quantity system of competition (quoted in Blaug, 1 997, p. 68). Edgeworths Mathematical Psychics (1981) followed Cournot in providing all the trappings of the mod de? nition of stainless ompetition in terms of a large number of sellers, a homogeneous product, sodding(a) mobility of resources and hone knowledge on the part of buyers and sellers of all selection opportunities. However, marshalls treatment of the competition always c befully labelled as free competition was much closer to Smiths simple system of natural liberty than to that of Cournot and Edgeworths perfect competition. Even Walras hesitated to follow Cournot to the permitter. Indeed, it was not until the 1920s that the modern textbook concept of perfect competition was ? ally received into the corpus of mainstream economics, largely due to the intrusion of Knights classic, Risk, Uncertainty and Pro? t (1921). But it is doubtful whether the nous was in incident fully accepted in 1921 and a good strip can be made for the dissertation that it was Robinson and Chamberlain a decade later who hammered raze the opening of perfect competition in the actually process of inventing liberal and monopolistic competition theory (Machovec, 1995). The replacement of the process conception of competition by an end-state conception, which was ? alized in 1933 or there to the highest degrees, drained the idea of competition of all behavioural content, so that even price competition, the very kernel, of the war-ridden process for Adam Smith, David Ricardo and tail end Stuart Mill now had to be analysed as progressive tense competition, a sort of deviation from the norm. Indeed, every act of competition on the part of a man of affairs was now taken as evidence of some degree of monopoly power, and hence a departure from the noble-minded of perfect competition, and yet pure monopoly ruled out hawkish behaviour as much as did perfect competition. II.Perfect Competition, the Unattainable Ideal wholly I pass on say so far merely reiterates what Sch umpeter express in 1942 and Hayek repeated in 1949 perfect competition is not lone(prenominal) undoable but inferior, and has no title to be set up as a model of holy man ef? ciency what the theory of perfect competition discusses has little take over to be called competition at all and its conclusions are of little use as guides to constitution (quoted in Blaug, 1997, p. 69). But this message, delivered over a half-century ago, fell on deaf ears and the endstate theory of perfect competition is more ? mly in the saddle today than it ever was in the 1940s when Hayek and Schumpeter, not to parent John Maurice Clark (1949, 1961), were writing. And wherefore? The settle is simple it is that most of us were taught that although perfect competition is rarely if ever attained, nearly-perfect competition is said to be observable in some markets (agricultural markets being a favourite physical exertion) and these approximations to the state of perfect competition somehow replicat e umpteen 40 MARK BLAUG f the desirable characteristics of perfect competition in a word, second-best is so nearly ? rst-best that we whitethorn indeed employ ? rst-best as a precedent. exposed any textbook and what do we ? nd? The concept of perfect competition is said to be interchangeable the assumption of a perfect vacuum in physics descriptively inaccurate, to be sure, but but productive of valid insights closely actual economies. Thus, Samuelson and Nordhaus (1992, p. 295) in the 14th edition of their Economics concede that a perfect and absolutely ef? ient war-ridden mechanism has never existed and never bequeath but the oil crisis of the mid-seventies is scarcely one of their many examples of how an empirically lift competitive model can nevertheless leaven the right functions to a concrete imabsolutely competitive situation (for other textbook treatments, see Blaug, 1997, pp. 6970). This is hardly what Reder (1982, p. 12), called the notion of tight prior equi librium, which he survey was characteristic of the simoleons School of Economics one whitethorn treat sight prices and quantities as good approximations to their long-run equilibrium set.Call this the good-approximation assumption. Unfortunately, the idea of a near or far approximation to perfect competition has absolutely no logical meaning. We seem conveniently to confine forgotten the famous LipseyLancaster (1996) second-best theorem published in 1956, according to which we are either at a ? rst-best optimum or it matters not whether we are at second-best or tenth-best because we cannot rigorously demonstrate that doing away with a task or a valuate that put us at tenth-best will bring us closer to ? st-best in a social welfare sense of these terms. This theorem has not been conveniently forgotten it has been by design forgotten because it wreaks havoc with the end-state, ? rst-best conception of competition. Must we thusly cease to give ad depravity on competition poli cy? I think not but what it does mean is that instead of gnostic pronouncements slightly the desirability of any move in the direction of ? st-best perfect competition, we must(prenominal) engage instead in qualitative judgements about trancemeal improvements, embracing a energising process-conception of competition, which is precisely the old classical conception that Schumpeter, Hayek, Clark and modern neo-Austrians view as urged us to adopt. To grasp why it was necessary to bring back this tradition, we must spend a jiffy explaining why modern price theory is so immobile on the nature of the competitive equilibrium end-state and so weak on the process by which competition drives a market towards a ? al equilibrium. III. The flagitious legacy of General Equilibrium Theory When Walras literally invented general equilibrium (GE) in 1871, he was just as much bear on with the process-conception of competition cognise as the stability line as in what we perplex called the end-state interpretation of equilibrium known as the existence problem is simultaneous multimarket-equilibrium possible in a capitalist economy?But gradually, in successive editions of his Elements of Pure Economics, the existence problem came ever more to the fore, while the sta- IS COMPETITION SUCH A advanced THING? 41 bility problem receded in the background (Walker, 1996). Even so, Walrass view of how markets jell in disequilibrium was always somewhat naive. It is a story which we all learn in our ? rst course of economics in response to the appearance of excess demand and supply, prices adjust automatically as independently acting buyers and sellers grope their way to a ? al equilibrium. When this tatonnement story is well told, it sounds utterly win over and at much(prenominal)(prenominal) times we are apt to forget that many markets, particularly labour markets and customer markets, react alacritous in terms of quantities than in terms of prices (as marshal always insi sted in opposition to Walras) and sometimes scarcely in terms of quantities (see Blaug, 1997, pp. 7175). But prices and quantities aside, what about product ifferentiation and competition by maintefaery and avail summents, what about Schumpeterian competition in terms of new products and processes, new methods of marketing, new organizational salmagundis and new return structures for employees? In brief, all the forms of rivalry between producers which Chamberlain and Robinson do taught us to call monopolistic or imperfect competition (the irony of calling what cannot exist, perfect competition, and what always exists, imperfect competition, never ceases to amuse me . Walras struggled manfully to furnish a rigorous solution to the existence problem but never got much beyond number equations and unknowns to ensure that there were enough demand and supply equations to solve for the unknown equilibrium prices and quantities in the economy. As for the stability problem, he solv ed that after much hesitation by just now eliminating disequilibrium consummations as false trading (another wonderfully ironic piece of rhetoric). Although he never mentioned the concept of a ? tional auction off announcing diametrical prices until an equilibrium price is discovered, whereupon trade is allowed to take place this is one of those historical myths that subsequent generations take up invented it is dif? cult to avoid the conclusion that he entirely gave up the effort to provide a convincing account of how real- manhood competitive markets achieve GE. Such an account has in fact never been provided even to this date. In 1954, Arrow and Debreu ? nally solved the existence problem by modern mathematical techniques topological properties of convexity, ? ed point theorems, Nash equilibria, and so on of which Walras could never harbour dreamt but, in so doing, they travelled even further than Walras had from anything smacking of descriptive truth there are forwa rd markets in their GE model for all goods and services in the economy, including all locations and conceivable contingent states in which these goods and services exponent be consumed, and yet no one holds cash in to deal with the likelihood that income and expenditure may move to synchronize. They were perfectly candid about this failure to quarter actual economies.Indeed, they made a virtue of the rigorously formal properties of their model. 1 1 As Debreu (1959, p. x) express it in his Theory of Value The theory of valuate is treated here with the standards of rigor of the contemporary formalist trail of mathematics . . . . Allegiance to rigor dictates the axiomatic form of the analysis where the theory, in the strict sense, is logically entirely disconnected from its interpretation. And yet this book asseverateed to be a work in economics 42 MARK BLAUG They cracked the existence problem, not to mention the quaintness problem is there one unique vector of prices at whic h GE exists? but they never tackled the stability problem. In other words, after a century or more of endless re? nements of the central core of GE theory, an exercise which has pursue some of the best brains in twentieth-century economics, the theory is unavailing to shed any light on how market equilibrium is actually attained, not just in a real- arena decentralized market economy but even in the toy economies beloved of GE theorists. We may conclude that GE theory as much(prenominal) is a cul de sac it has no empirical content and never will acquit empirical content.Moreover, even regarded as a query program in social mathematics, it must be condemned as an almost total failure. That is not to say that highly aggregated computable GE models, much(prenominal) as IS-LM, are pointless or that a GE formulation of an economic problem, emphasizing the interdependency of all sectors of the economy, may not prove light up but merely that Walrasian GE theory the notion that th e existence of multi-market equilibrium may be analyse in a way that is analogous to puzzle out a set of simultaneous equations has proved in the fullness of time to be an utterly aseptic innovation.The real paradox is that the existence, uniqueness and stability of GE should ever turn over been considered an interesting question for economists to answer a complete satisfactory proof of all three aspects of the problem would no doubt have been a considerable intellectual feat in logic but would not in any way have enhanced our belowstanding of how actual economic systems work. IV. The eudaimonia Implications of GE Of course, Walras hoped to show, not just that GE is possible, but that it is good.But here excessively he never got much beyond the idea that free interchange between two parties improves both(prenominal)(prenominal) of their welfares otherwise, why would they have traded? What is true of bilaterial exchange will also be true of competitive exchange between a large number of traders if individual producers cannot themselves set prices, so that all consumers face equal prices for identical homogeneous commodities. This is precisely where the notion of perfect competition as an end-state of rest comes into welfare economics grounded in GE theory.Pareto, who was a much mend technician than Walras, carried on where Walras left off. He too was positive(p) that GE is good for everyone but as a follower of Ernest Mach in philosophy, he hated such metaphysical ideas as maximising happiness, utility, welfare, or call it what you will, and he strenuously objected to interpersonal comparisons of utility (ICU) on the grounds that such comparison could not be operationalised.Pondering these issues, he realised that the one item that avoids ICU is a social state which meets with firm approval or at least(prenominal) with the absence of con? ict in which one person is altogether made better off at the expense of another person. In other words, we want a state which is so ef? cient that there is no surplus, no waste, no slack, no such thing as a free lunch. But is not perfect competition just such a state? Of course, it may leave some plurality liberal IS COMPETITION SUCH A corking THING? 3 and some raft scummy but that will be the consequence of the fact that we started with unequal endowments of the individuals in our economy some commonwealth are born clever and some people have rich parents but, given those endowments that are not themselves explained by GE theory no theory ever explains everything the GE model will wear down out the rental prices of all the services of land, labor and capital as well as the prices of all goods, produced with those services.Once we have somehow arrived at the end-state of perfectly competitive equilibrium, it will be impossible to make one person better off without fashioning another person worse off turn out by interfering with the initial endowments of agents. In this wa y, Pareto thought that he had ? nally found an admittedly narrow de? nition of the bene? cial effects of competition that was totally free of that positivist bugbear, ICU. The idea, only later called Pareto optimality, fell into oblivion as concisely as it was announced but was rescued along with Walrasian GE theory in the 1930s by John Hicks and Nicholas Kaldor.They extended the scope of Pareto optimality by arguing that any economic change, whether from a position of competitive equilibrium or not, was welfare improving if the gains to bene? ciaries of that change were large enough to enable them at least in principle, to bribe the losers voluntarily to accept the change. The existences of such potential Pareto improvement (PPI), as they are directly called, still involves no ICU because it is grounded on the voluntariness of market exchange.In short, Hicks and Kaldor (with a prodding from Lionel Robbins) stayed true to the Paretian conception of how an economist should study we lfare economics. At ? rst glance, the HickKaldor compensation test does seem virtually to turn of events a rabbit out of a hat but further re? ection soon showed that the movement was semantic, not substantive. Why is it a potential and not an actual PI? The moment we try to put through PPI by encouraging gainers and losers to negotiate a bribe, they will engage in strategic bargaining and even without fancy game theory, it is easy to see that they may never reach an agreement.If the change has political signi? cance, the state may then intervene to force the parties to agree in which cause we have said good-by to our taboo on ICU. No matter how we slice it, in the end we cannot avoid (1) a qualitative judgement from on high of the size of the PPI look on that there is no objective way short of voluntary trade to measure the magnitude of a gain or a loss to the parties concerned and (2) an interpersonal comparison of that gain and loss to the respective(prenominal) part ies.But all that brings us back to Marshall and Pigou whose Economics of Welfare (1921) had none of Paretos compunctions about ICU and was perfectly content to declare that a pound sterling taken from a rich man by a progressive income value hurt him less than the pleasure it gave the poor man when it was handed over to him. We have not quite reached the end of the story. The ArrowDebreu proof of the existence of GE in 1954 was almost contemporary with Arrows proof of what he labelled the First and cooperate essential Theorems of welfare economics. The ? st theorem demonstrates that every competitive equilibrium in a decentralized economy is Pareto-optimal, which we have already discussed, and the second 44 MARK BLAUG theorem demonstrates that a Pareto-optimum can always be achieved via perfect competition if lump-sum taxes and transfers are feasible, so that whatever were the original endowments of agents, we can still make everyone better off with a perfectly competitive econo my. Immense pains are taken in every textbook of microeconomics to comport readers of the validity of those two theorems.And they are valid as mathematical exercises. Lump-sum taxes and transfers are changes which do not come upon economic behaviour and even the most dodgy modern welfare economists have never been able to come up with a convincing example of such things. 2 I think that we may safely conclude that the First and instant implicit in(p) Theorems of welfare economics are just mental exercises without the slightest possibility of ever being practically relevant.They are what Ronald Coase (1988) called blackboard economics, an economics that is easy to write on a blackboard in a classroom but that bears no resemblance to the world outside the classroom. V. Why Is Competition Good? I contend that perfect competition is a grossly misleading concept whose only real evaluate is to generate examination questions for students of economics. 3 It is misleading because it br eeds the view that economics is a subject like euclidean geometry, whose conclusion may be rigorously deduced from aboriginal axioms of behaviour plus some hard facts about technology.But of course this does not imply that competition is gloomy. I, along with most economists, believe that competition is good. But if perfect competition is impossible, and Pareto-optimality almost impossible, what is the basis of this belief in the desirability of competition? It is based on a concept of high-energy ef? ciency, the outcome of competitive processes, and not the static ef? ciency of Walras, Pareto and the First and Second Fundamental Theorems of welfare economics. The schizophrenia of economists on this issue is simply extraordinary.The manin-the-street favours capitalism because it is ultimately responsive to consumers demands, technologically dynamic and produces the goods that are wanted at low cost of course, it also suffers from periodic slumps, more or less chronic unemploymen t even in booms, and often generates a highly-unequal distribution 2 They would have to be randomly assigned to individuals or else to re? ect some personal noneconomic characteristic, such as more consonants than vowels in ones last name.It used to be thought that a uniform poll tax was a perfect example of a limp-sum tax but as Mrs. Thatcher discovered it had a most profound effect on economic behaviour almost a million people disappeared from the electoral roll in Britain because the poll tax could not be collected without a home address. 3 I concede reluctantly that it has its uses for purposes of answering comparative statics questions on taxes and subsidies but even these have much less practical signi? cance than is usually assumed (see Vickers, 1995). IS COMPETITION SUCH A GOOD THING? 5 of income. 4 Still, on balance the good outweighs the bad and without becoming Panglossian, he or she votes for capitalism and so do virtually all economists. But is this what we study in our textbooks? To ask the question is to already answer it. Can one actually teach the principles of dynamic ef? ciency? Of course, one can and that is what we do in every course in industrial organization (and in every course in management instills), where, alas, we have to undo the brainwashing that students have at a lower placegone in their courses on microeconomics.In so doing, we employ historical comparisons and case studies, and these can only cultivate the ability to make informed judgements about speci? c attempts at what Popper called in small stages social engineering, make the world a little better here and there, because we do not know enough to make the whole world best once and for all. VI. Some Conclusions Coase and Posner Beliefs in the ef? cacy of antitrust law ? ts neatly into the concept of dynamic ef? ciency, or what Clark called workable competition. A question like should we break up Microsoft or just dress down and perhaps ? e the company? does not ta lly itself to a precise answer by the edicts of economists and it is just as well that it does not. Empirical science frequently proceeds on the untidy basis of what is glib quite a than what can be formally present beyond any doubt. The structureconduct-performance paradigm of yesteryear, associated with names of Edward stonemason and Joe Bain, did just that but that has since been superseded by game theory and transaction cost on the one hand and the Chicago School of Richard Posner and Robert Bork on the other hand. In between we ? d Ronald Coase and the widely misunderstood Coase Theorem as the very centre piece of the law and economics movement. Since this so-called inappropriately named theorem picks up a number of the themes in welfare economics that we have discussed above, let us close with a brief news of it. As stated by its inventor, George Stigler (1966, p. 113), the Coase Theorem is the proposition that under perfect competition private and social be will be equal and hence the composition of output will not be modify by the manner in which the law assigns obligation for damage.This combines two claims in one, the ? rst of which will be familiar to us (1) an ef? ciency claim that perfect competition is always optimal if voluntary bargaining between the affected parties to their mutual advantage is possible at null transaction costs, de? ned as the costs of making deals, negotiating contracts, and policing the enforcement of those contracts (Allen, 2000), and (2) an invariance claim that the ? nal tryst of resources is perpetual to different initial assignments of station rights provided these are in fact clearly de? ed. A voluminous literature has shown that both propositions are either highly contentious or else a tautology if perfect competition, perfect selective training and correct 4 In an instructive essay, Richard Nelson (1981 reiterates my energize of schizophrenia and adds to my list of the bene? ts of a private enterprise system of capitalism that of administrative parsimony, an repercussion of Hayeks discussion of the merits of competitive prices as information signals. 46 MARK BLAUG transaction costs are rigorously de? ned (Medema and Zorbe, 2000).Lo and behold, however, Coase has argued ever more vehemently that transaction costs can be reduced by appropriate judicial decisions but that they can never be reduced to zero even under Cournot-type perfect competition. Of course, if we de? ne perfect information as literally foreseeing every alternative opportunity under all possible contingencies, now and in the future, it follows straight off that we can write and enforce contracts at zero costs (zero in ? nancial outlays, in time and even in cognitive effort), in which case only increasing returns to scale will prevent us achieving perfect competition.Once transaction costs are zero and competition is perfect, it follows immediately that the distribution of property rights cannot matter. In short , the Coase Theorem is just a logical corollary of perfect competition and perfect information but that does little to persuade us that it is much more than a logical theorem. 5 As for the more contentious invariance claim, income and wealth effects in custom patterns and the strategic behaviour of the injured and injuring parties as they enter into voluntary bargaining (the old objection to HicksKaldor compensation payments) will certainly make the ? al allocation of resources sensitive to the way in which the law of the moment assigns liability for damage. Are we really to believe that my claim against the American Tobacco Company for giving me lung cancer will be indomitable in 2002 in exactly the same way it would have been decided in 1940? Coase (1964, p. 105) said it all 35 years ago Contemplation of an optimal system may provide techniques of analysis that would otherwise have been lose and, in certain special cases, it may go far to providing a solution.But in general i ts in? uence has been pernicious. It has directed economists attention away from the main question, which is how alternative arrangements will actually work in practice. It has led economists to derive conclusions for economic policy from a study of an abstract of a market situation. Richard Posner, in his in? uential textbook, Economic Analysis of law (1998), now in its ? fth edition, subsumes Pareto optimality and the Coase Theorem in an ef? ciency logic of wealth maximization.He claims not only that common law, codified law and judge-made law should serve to maximize wealth, so that for example entitlements in property law should be shifted to the more productive litigants as evidenced by their willingness to pay, but that legal entitlements and hence resources actually tend to gravitate towards their most valuable use if voluntary exchange is permitted. Without saying so, Posner clearly believes that we can 5 Moreover, as Allen (2000, pp. 904905) argues quite rightly, the fam ous Modigliani-Miller Theorem of corporate nance if capital markets are perfect, the value of a ? rm is changeless to its debt- virtue ratio and the Ricardo Equivalence Theorem of government ? nance if capital markets are perfect, the level of household wealth is invariant to the ratio of taxes to the size of the public debt are both special cases of the Coase Theorem because all taxes, debt obligations and equity shares are simply delineations of property rights in a world of zero transaction costs, both ? rms and governments could decide on debt levels by tossing a coin.IS COMPETITION SUCH A GOOD THING? 47 isolate PPI, divorcing ef? ciency from equity without committing ourselves to ICU, in short, he believes in classic or rather neoclassical Paretian welfare economics. Although he deals at aloofness with distributional issues arising from liability rules and various forms of taxation, he never lays down any general principles about income redistribution, such as, for example , Pigou did any transfer of income from the rich to the poor that does not diminish national income was deemed desirable by Pigou.What he argues, when criticized, is simply that users of distributive justice will have to be addressed outside the framework of standard economic analysis (Parisi, 2000). But this is exactly what Pareto, Kaldor and Hicks said years ago. Orthodox welfare economics, including the ef? ciency of the common law hypothesis upheld by Posner, has simply stood still ever since the 1930s. This notion of a neat divorce of ef? ciency from equity, of an objective value-free de? nition of ef? iency, has haunted economics from its outset but it is, of course, a will-o-the-wisp there is in fact a different ef? ciency outcome for every different distribution of income, and vice versa. Ef? ciency is necessarily a value-laden term and welfare economics is necessarily normative, that is, a matter of good or bad and not true or false. 6 However, there is real merit in treati ng ef? ciency and equity questions lexicographically, so that we can be as explicit as possible about our distributional judgements, but that is not because we can ever decisively separate them.My complaint about Posner is that he evades all these rudimentary questions in applied welfare economics. Not only does he fail to tell us how to add equity to ef? ciency but he does not even tell us whether ef? ciency means static ef? ciency or dynamic ef? ciency. There is an almost deliberate effeminacy of language in all his writings, which smacks of ideology rather than science. If we are going to employ the economists language of ef? ciency, we ought to be told just how to apply it and why ef? ciency should be our standard for judging the consequences of the law.One of Clarks old rules of workable competition, such that entry into industries should be kept as free as is technically feasible taking due account of sunk costs, if necessary by antitrust legislation, is more relevant for pu blic policy than Posners continual appeal to the principle of wealth maximization. The Chicago school does not deny that there is a case for antitrust law but they doubt that it is a strong case because most markets, even in the presence of high concentration ratios, are shakable (Bork, 1978). How do we know?We know because the good-approximation assumption the economy is never far away from its perfectly competitive equilibrium growth path Believe it or not, that is all there is to the antitrust revolution of the Chicago School. 6 Some economists believe, extraordinarily enough, that welfare economics is positive and not evaluative at all (see Hennipman, 1992 Blaug, 1992, chap. 8, 1993). 48 References MARK BLAUG Allen, Douglas W. (2000) Transaction Costs, in Bouckaert and De Geest, eds. , pp. 893926. Blaug, memorialize (1992) The Methodology of Economics, 2nd edn. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Blaug, Mark (1993) Pieter Hennipman on Paretian Welfare Economics A Comment, De Economist, 141, 127129. Blaug, Mark (1997) Competition as an End-State and Competition as a Process, in Not Only an Economist. late Essays. Cheltenham Edward Elgar, pp. 6686. Bork, Robert H. (1978) The Antitrust Paradox A indemnity at War with Itself. New York Basic Books. 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